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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Technology transfer</span></span>

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<p><b>Technology transfer</b> (<b>TT</b>), also called <b>transfer of technology</b> (<b>TOT</b>), is the process of transferring (disseminating) <a href="Technology" title="Technology">technology</a> from the person or organization that owns or holds it to another person or organization, in an attempt to transform inventions and scientific outcomes into new products and services that benefit society.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Technology transfer is closely related to (and may arguably be considered a subset of) <a href="Knowledge_transfer" title="Knowledge transfer">knowledge transfer</a>.

</p><p>A comprehensive definition of technology transfer today includes the notion of collaborative process as it became clear that global challenges could be resolved only through the development of global solutions. Knowledge and technology transfer plays a crucial role in connecting innovation stakeholders and moving inventions from creators to public and private users.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a> (IP) is an important instrument of technology transfer, as it establishes an environment conducive to sharing research results and technologies.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Analysis in 2003 showed that the context,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or environment, and motives of each organization involved will influence the method of technology transfer employed. The motives behind the technology transfer were not necessarily homogenous across organization levels, especially when commercial and government interests are combined.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The protection of <a href="IP_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="IP rights">IP rights</a> enables all parties, including universities and research institutions to ensure ownership of the scientific outcomes of their intellectual activity, and to control the use of IP in accordance with their mission and core values. IP protection gives academic institutions capacity to market their inventions, attract funding, seek industrial partners and assure dissemination of new technologies through means such as licensing or creation of start-ups for the benefit of society.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_practice">In practice</h2></div>

<p>Technology transfers may occur between <a href="Universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Universities">universities</a>, <a href="Business" title="Business">businesses</a> (of any size, ranging from <a href="Small_business" title="Small business">small</a>, <a href="Small_and_medium-sized_enterprises" class="mw-redirect" title="Small and medium-sized enterprises">medium</a>, to <a href="Big_business" title="Big business">large</a>), <a href="Government" title="Government">governments</a>, across <a href="Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">geopolitical</a> <a href="Border" title="Border">borders</a>, both formally and informally, and both openly and secretly. Often it occurs by concerted effort to share <a href="Skill" title="Skill">skills</a>, <a href="Knowledge_transfer" title="Knowledge transfer">knowledge</a>, technologies, manufacturing methods, samples, and facilities among the participants.

</p><p>While the Technology Transfer process involves many activities, which can be represented in many ways, in reality, technology transfer is a fluid and dynamic process that rarely follows a linear course.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typical steps include:

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<ul><li>Knowledge creation</li>

<li>Disclosure</li>

<li>Assessment and evaluation</li>

<li>IP protection</li>

<li>Fundraising and technology development</li>

<li>Marketing</li>

<li>Commercialization</li>

<li>Product development, and</li>

<li>Impact.</li></ul>

<p>Technology transfer aims to ensure that scientific and technological developments are accessible to a wider range of users who can then further develop and exploit the technology into new products, processes, applications, materials, or services. It is closely related to (and may arguably be considered a subset of) <a href="Knowledge_transfer" title="Knowledge transfer">knowledge transfer</a>. Horizontal transfer is the movement of technologies from one area to another.

</p><p>Transfer of technology is primarily horizontal. Vertical transfer occurs when technologies are moved from applied research centers to research and development departments.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<p>Spin-outs are used where the host organization does not have the necessary will, resources, or skills to develop new technology.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often these approaches are associated with raising of <a href="Venture_capital" title="Venture capital">venture capital</a> (VC) as a means of funding the development process, a practice common in the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and the <a href="European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>. <a href="Research_spin-off" title="Research spin-off">Research spin-off</a> companies are a popular vehicle of commercialization in <a href="Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, where the rate of licensing of Canadian university research remains far below that of the US. Local venture capital organizations such as the Mid-Atlantic Venture Association (MAVA) also sponsor conferences at which investors assess the potential for commercialization of technology.

</p><p><a href="Technology_brokering" title="Technology brokering">Technology brokers</a> are people who discovered how to bridge the emergent worlds and apply scientific concepts or processes to new situations or circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A related term, used almost synonymously, especially in Europe, is "technology <a href="Valorisation" title="Valorisation">valorisation</a>". While conceptually the practice has been utilized for many years (in ancient times, <a href="Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a> was notable for applying science to practical problems), the present-day volume of research, combined with high-profile failures at <a href="Xerox_PARC" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerox PARC">Xerox PARC</a> and elsewhere, has led to a focus on the process itself.

</p><p>Whereas technology transfer can involve the dissemination of <a href="High_tech" title="High tech">highly complex technology</a> from capital-intensive origins to low-capital recipients (and can involve aspects of dependency and fragility of systems), it also can involve <a href="Appropriate_technology" title="Appropriate technology">appropriate technology</a>, not necessarily high-tech or expensive, that is better disseminated, yielding <a href="Robustness" title="Robustness">robustness</a> and <a href="Autonomy" title="Autonomy">independence</a> of systems.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Informal_promotion">Informal promotion</h3></div>

<p>Technology transfer is also promoted through informal means, such as at conferences organized by various groups, including the <a href="Ewing_Marion_Kauffman_Foundation" title="Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation">Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation</a> and the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://autm.net/">Association of University Technology Managers (AUTM)</a>, and at "challenge" competitions by organizations such as the <a href="Center_for_Advancing_Innovation" title="Center for Advancing Innovation">Center for Advancing Innovation</a> in Maryland. AUTM represents over 3,100 technology transfer professionals, and more than 800 universities, research centers, hospitals, businesses and government organizations.

</p><p>The most frequently used informal means of technology transfer are through education, studies, professional exchange of opinions, movement of people, seminars, workshops. .

</p><p>There are numerous professional associations and TTO Networks enhancing different forms of collaboration among technology managers in order to facilitate this "informal" transfer of best practices and experiences.

</p><p>In addition to AUTM, other regional and international associations include the Association of European Science and Technology Transfer Professionals (ASTP), the Alliance of Technology Transfer Professionals (ATTP), <a href="Licensing_Executives_Society_International" title="Licensing Executives Society International">Licensing Executives Society</a> (LES), Praxis Auril and others. There are also national Technology transfer associations and networks, such as the National Association of Technology Transfer Offices in Mexico (Red OTT Mexico), the Brazilian Forum of Innovation and Technology Transfer Managers (FORTEC), the Alliance of TechTransfer Professionals of the Philippines (AToP), the South African Research and Innovation Management Association (SARIMA), and other associations.

</p><p>They promote cooperation in technology transfer and the exchange of best practices and experiences among professionals, as today international technology transfer is considered one of the most effective ways to bring people together to find solutions to global problems such as COVID-19, climate change or cyber-attacks.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="IP_policies">IP policies</h3></div>

<p>Universities and research institutions seeking to partner with industry or other organizations can adopt an institutional <a href="Intellectual_property_policy" title="Intellectual property policy">intellectual property policy</a> for effective intellectual property management and technology transfer. Such policies provide structure, predictability, and an environment, in which commercialization partners (industrial sponsors, consultants, non-profit organizations, SMEs, governments) and research stakeholders (researchers, technicians, students, visiting researchers, etc.) can access and share knowledge, technology and IP. National IP strategies are measures taken by a government to realize its IP policy objectives.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organizations">Organizations</h2></div>

<p>A research result may be of scientific and commercial interest, but <a href="Patent" title="Patent">patents</a> are normally only issued for practical processes, and so someone—not necessarily the researchers—must come up with a specific practical process.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another consideration is commercial value; for example, while there are many ways to accomplish <a href="Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a>, the ones of commercial value are those that generate more energy than they require to operate. The process to commercially exploit research varies widely. It can involve licensing agreements or setting up joint ventures and partnerships to share both the risks and rewards of bringing new technologies to market. Other corporate vehicles, e.g. spin-outs, are used where the host organization does not have the necessary will, resources, or skills to develop new technology. Often these approaches are associated with raising of <a href="Venture_capital" title="Venture capital">venture capital</a> (VC) as a means of funding the development process. Research spin-off companies are a popular vehicle of commercialization in Canada, where the rate of licensing of Canadian university research remains far below that of the US.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Scholars Jeffrey Stoff and <a href="Alex_Joske" title="Alex Joske">Alex Joske</a> have argued that the <a href="Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a>'s <a href="United_front_(China)" title="United front (China)">united front</a> "influence apparatus intersects with or directly supports its global technology transfer apparatus."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technology_transfer_offices">Technology transfer offices</h3></div>

<p>Many universities and research institutions, and governmental organizations now have an Office of Technology Transfer (TTO, also known as "Tech Transfer" or "TechXfer") dedicated to identifying research that has potential commercial interest and strategies for how to exploit it.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Technology Transfer Offices are usually created within a university in order to manage IP assets of the university, and the transfer of knowledge and technology to industry. Sometimes, their mandate includes any interaction or contractual relation with the private sector, or other responsibilities, depending on the mission of the institutions. Common names for such offices differ. Some examples include <a href="University_technology_transfer_offices" title="University technology transfer offices">Technology Licensing Office</a> (TLO), Technology Management Office, Research Contracts and IP Services Office, Technology Transfer Interface, Industry Liaisons Office, IP and Technology Management Office, and Nucleus of Technological Innovation.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Technology transfer offices may work on behalf of research institutions, governments, and even large multinationals. Where start-ups and spin-outs are the clients, commercial fees are sometimes waived in lieu of an equity stake in the business. As a result of the potential complexity of the technology transfer process, technology transfer organizations are often multidisciplinary, including economists, engineers, lawyers, marketers and scientists. The dynamics of the technology transfer process have attracted attention in their own right, and there are several dedicated societies and journals.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technology_and_Innovation_Support_Centers">Technology and Innovation Support Centers</h3></div>

<p>Technology and Innovation Support Centers<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (TISCs) help innovators access patent information, scientific and technical literature and search tools and databases and make more effective use of these resources to promote innovation, technology transfer, commercialization and utilization of technologies. The WIPO TISCs program currently supports over 80 countries. WIPO supports its member states in establishing and developing TISCs in universities and other institutions in numerous countries around the world. Services offered by TISCs may include:

</p>

<ul><li>access to online patent and non-patent (scientific and technical) resources and IP-related publications;</li>

<li>assistance in searching and retrieving technology information;</li>

<li>training in database search;</li>

<li>on-demand searches (novelty, state-of-the-art and infringement);</li>

<li>monitoring technology and competitors;</li>

<li>basic information on industrial property laws, management and strategy, and technology commercialization and marketing.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_technology_parks">Science technology parks</h3></div>

<p><a href="Science_park" title="Science park">Science and technology parks</a> (STP) are territories usually affiliated with a university or a research institution, which accommodate and foster the growth of companies based therein through technology transfer and open innovation.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technology_incubators">Technology incubators</h3></div>

<p><a href="Technology_business_incubator" title="Technology business incubator">Technology business incubators</a> (TBIs) are organizations that help startup companies and individual entrepreneurs develop their businesses by providing a range of services, including training, brokering and financing.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="IP_marketplaces">IP marketplaces</h3></div>

<p>Intellectual Property marketplaces are Internet-based platforms that allow innovators to connect with potential partners and/or clients. For example, online platform <a href="WIPO_GREEN" title="WIPO GREEN">WIPO GREEN</a> enable collaborations in specific areas of knowledge transfer and facilitate matchmaking between technology providers and technology seekers.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government_and_intellectual_property_support">Government and intellectual property support</h2></div>

<p>There has been a marked increase in technology transfer intermediaries specialized in their field since 1980, stimulated in large part by the <a href="Bayh%E2%80%93Dole_Act" title="Bayh–Dole Act">Bayh–Dole Act</a> and equivalent legislation in other countries, which provided additional incentives for research exploitation. Due to the increasing focus on technology transfer there are several forms of intermediary institutions at work in this sector, from TTOs to IP 'trolls' that act outside the Bayh–Dole Act provisions. Due to the risk of exploitation, intellectual property policy, training and systems support for technology transfer by government, research institutes and universities, have been international and regionally-focused organisation, such as the <a href="World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" title="World Intellectual Property Organization">World Intellectual Property Organisation</a><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Partnership_intermediaries">Partnership intermediaries</h3></div>

<p>The U.S. government's annual budget funds over $100 billion in research and development activity, which leads to a continuous pipeline of new inventions and technologies from within government laboratories.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through legislation including the <a href="Bayh%E2%80%93Dole_Act" title="Bayh–Dole Act">Bayh–Dole Act</a>, Congress encourages the private sector to use those technologies with commercial potential through technology transfer mechanisms such as Cooperative Research and Development Agreements, Patent License Agreements, Educational Partnership Agreements, and state/local government partnerships.

</p><p>The term "partnership intermediary" means an agency of a state or local government—or a nonprofit entity owned, chartered, funded, or operated by or on behalf of a state or local government—that assists, counsels, advises, evaluates, or otherwise cooperates with small business firms; institutions of higher education defined in section 201(a) of the <a href="Higher_Education_Act_of_1965" title="Higher Education Act of 1965">Higher Education Act of 1965</a> (20 USC § 1141 [a]); or educational institutions within the meaning of section 2194 of Title 10, United States Code, that need or can make demonstrably productive use of technology-related assistance from a federal laboratory, including state programs receiving funds under cooperative agreements entered into under section 5121 of the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988 (15 USC § 2781).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="During_COVID-19_pandemic">During COVID-19 pandemic</h2></div>

<p>Technology transfer had a direct impact on contributing to global public health issues, by enabling global access to <a href="COVID-19_vaccines" class="mw-redirect" title="COVID-19 vaccines">COVID-19 vaccines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During 2021, vaccine developers concluded over 200 technology transfer agreements. One example was <a href="AstraZeneca" title="AstraZeneca">AstraZeneca</a> concluding the licensing and technology transfer agreements on <a href="Oxford%E2%80%93AstraZeneca_COVID-19_vaccine" title="Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine">AstraZeneca</a> with the <a href="Serum_Institute_of_India" title="Serum Institute of India">Serum Institute of India</a> and with <a href="Daiichi_Sankyo" title="Daiichi Sankyo">Daiichi Sankyo</a> of <a href="Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> to supply <a href="COVID-19_vaccine" title="COVID-19 vaccine">vaccines for COVID-19</a>, which were developed in collaboration with the <a href="University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a>. In this process Intellectual Property was part of the solution and an important tool for facilitation of affordable global access to COVID 19 treatments – as it was the case in two licensing agreements between <a href="Medicines_Patent_Pool" title="Medicines Patent Pool">Medicines Patent Pool</a> (MPP) and pharmaceutical companies <a href="Merck_Group" title="Merck Group">Merck</a> and <a href="Pfizer" title="Pfizer">Pfizer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Drawbacks">Drawbacks</h2></div>

<p>Despite incentives to move research into production, the practical aspects are sometimes difficult to perform in practice. Using DoD <a href="Technology_readiness_levels" class="mw-redirect" title="Technology readiness levels">technology readiness levels</a> as a criterion (for example), research tends to focus on TRL (technology readiness level) 1–3 while readiness for production tends to focus on TRL 6–7 or higher. Bridging TRL-3 to TRL-6 has proven to be difficult in some organizations. Attempting to rush research (prototypes) into production (fully tested under diverse conditions, reliable, maintainable, etc.) tends to be more costly and time-consuming than expected.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Power political and realpolitik incentives in technology transfer are cognized to be negative factors in destructive applications.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Technology transfer to dictatorial regimes is thought to be disruptive for the scientific purposes.

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<li><a href="Business_incubator" title="Business incubator">Business incubator</a></li>

<li><a href="Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li>

<li><a href="Discovery_(observation)" title="Discovery (observation)">Discovery (observation)</a></li>

<li><a href="Licensing_Executives_Society_International" title="Licensing Executives Society International">Licensing Executives Society International</a></li>

<li><a href="New_product_development" title="New product development">New product development</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_innovation" title="Open innovation">Open innovation</a></li>

<li><a href="Prior_art" title="Prior art">Prior art</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_assessment" title="Technology assessment">Technology assessment</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_licensing_office" class="mw-redirect" title="Technology licensing office">Technology licensing office</a> (TLO)</li>

<li><a href="Thousand_Talents_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Thousand Talents Program">Thousand Talents Program</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div>

<p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> This article incorporates text from a <a href="Free_content" title="Free content">free content</a> work. Licensed under CC-BY-4.0. Text taken from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/technology-transfer/en/index.html"><i>Intellectual Property and Technology Transfer</i></a>, WIPO.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://documentacion.ideam.gov.co/openbiblio/bvirtual/005133/ipcc/tectran/IPCC_SRTT.pdf">Special Report：Methodological and Technological issues in Technology Transfer</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210120221541/http://documentacion.ideam.gov.co/openbiblio/bvirtual/005133/ipcc/tectran/IPCC_SRTT.pdf">Archived</a> 2021-01-20 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (<a href="IPCC" class="mw-redirect" title="IPCC">IPCC</a>)</li>

<li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/business+%26+management/journal/10961">The Journal of Technology Transfer</a></i></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=5271">Technology Transfer Systems in the United States and Germany: Lessons and Perspectives (1997)</a></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBeatty2003" class="citation journal cs1">Beatty, Edward (2003). "Approaches to Technology Transfer in History and the Case of Nineteenth-Century Mexico". <i>Comparative Technology Transfer and Society</i>. <b>1</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">167–</span>197. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fctt.2003.0013">10.1353/ctt.2003.0013</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146644966">146644966</a>.</cite></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/universities_research/ip_policies/">The WIPO IP Toolkit for Universities and research institutions</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/resources_en?f%5B0%5D=knowledge_service%3ATechnology%20Transfer">European Union Database of Technology Transfer Country reports</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Science_and_technology_studies704" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Economics_of_science" title="Economics of science">Economics of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Economics_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Economics of scientific knowledge">Economics of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="History" title="History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">and technology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Languages_of_science" title="Languages of science">Languages of science</a>

<ul><li><a href="Scientific_language_(linguistic_classification)" title="Scientific language (linguistic classification)">Scientific language</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li>

<li><a href="Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">Fuzzy logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-Luddism" title="Neo-Luddism">Neo-Luddism</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Religion and science</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li>

<li>Social

<ul><li><a href="Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">construction of technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_shaping_of_technology" title="Social shaping of technology">shaping of technology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">scientific</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Sociology of the history of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">Sociotechnology</a></li>

<li><a href="Strong_programme" title="Strong programme">Strong programme</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science<br>studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Boundary-work" title="Boundary-work">Boundary-work</a></li>

<li><a href="Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li>

<li><a href="Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Double_hermeneutic" title="Double hermeneutic">Double hermeneutic</a></li>

<li><a href="Logology_(science)" title="Logology (science)">Logology</a></li>

<li><a href="Mapping_controversies" title="Mapping controversies">Mapping controversies</a></li>

<li><a href="Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li>

<li><a href="Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a>

<ul><li><a href="Black_swan_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Black swan events">black swan events</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_science" title="Psychology of science">Psychology of science</a></li>

<li>Science

<ul><li><a href="Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_communication" title="Science communication">communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_education" title="Science education">education</a></li>

<li><a href="Normal_science" title="Normal science">normal</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-colonial_science" title="Neo-colonial science">Neo-colonial</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-normal_science" title="Post-normal science">post-normal</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">rhetoric</a></li>

<li>Scientific

<ul><li><a href="Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">community</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">consensus</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_controversy" title="Scientific controversy">controversy</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">dissent</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_enterprise" title="Scientific enterprise">enterprise</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">literacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">method</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">misconduct</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_priority" title="Scientific priority">priority</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">skepticism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Scientocracy" title="Scientocracy">Scientocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_of_team_science" title="Science of team science">Team science</a></li>

<li><a href="Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a>

<ul><li><a href="Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">ecological</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Technology" title="Technology">Technology<br>studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Co-production_(society)" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-production (society)">Co-production</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_studies" title="Design studies">Design studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Dematerialization_(products)" title="Dematerialization (products)">Dematerialization</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li>

<li><a href="Early_adopter" title="Early adopter">Early adopter</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_studies" title="Engineering studies">Engineering studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Financial_technology" title="Financial technology">Financial technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Hype_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li>

<li><a href="Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">diffusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">disruptive</a></li>

<li><a href="Linear_model_of_innovation" title="Linear model of innovation">linear model</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">system</a></li>

<li><a href="Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">Leapfrogging</a></li>

<li><a href="Normalization_process_theory" title="Normalization process theory">Normalization process theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Reverse_salient" title="Reverse salient">Reverse salient</a></li>

<li><a href="Skunkworks_project" title="Skunkworks project">Skunkworks project</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li>

<li><a href="Technical_change" title="Technical change">Technical change</a></li>

<li><a href="Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a>

<ul><li><a href="Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">feminist</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Technological

<ul><li><a href="Technological_change" title="Technological change">change</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">convergence</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_transitions" title="Technological transitions">transitions</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Technology

<ul><li><a href="Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">and society</a></li>

<li><a href="Criticism_of_technology" title="Criticism of technology">criticism of</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_dynamics" title="Technology dynamics">dynamics</a></li>

<li><a href="Theories_of_technology" title="Theories of technology">theories of</a></li>

</ul></li>

<li><a href="Women_in_engineering" title="Women in engineering">Women in engineering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">Academic freedom</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">Digital divide</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidence-based_policy" title="Evidence-based policy">Evidence-based policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Factor_10" title="Factor 10">Factor 10</a></li>

<li><a href="Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Horizon_scanning" title="Horizon scanning">Horizon scanning</a></li>

<li><a href="Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">Politicization of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Regulation_of_science" title="Regulation of science">Regulation of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_to_science_and_culture" title="Right to science and culture">Right to science</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_science_policy" title="History of science policy">history of</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_of_science_policy" title="Science of science policy">science of</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Technology_assessment" title="Technology assessment">Technology assessment</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_policy" title="Technology policy">Technology policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Transition_management_(governance)" title="Transition management (governance)">Transition management</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> Portals

<ul><li><a href="Portal%3AScience" title="Portal:Science">Science</a></li>

<li><a href="Portal%3AHistory_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Portal%3ATechnology" title="Portal:Technology">Technology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category

<ul><li>Associations</li>

<li>Journals</li>

<li>Scholars</li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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